Factors | Cellular source | Effects | Ref |
Growth factors | |||
PDGF | Platelets, monocytes/macrophages, ASMC, epithelium | Pro-proliferative | 123–126 |
FGF | Extracellular matrix, monocytes/macrophages, ASMC | Pro-proliferative | 126–129 |
EGF | Epithelium, platelets | Pro-proliferative | 130 |
Cytokines | |||
TGF-β | ASMC, T-lymphocytes, epithelium | Pro-proliferative | 128 131–133 |
TNF-α | ASMC, epithelium, T cells, monocytes/macrophages | Pro-proliferative, antiproliferative | 126 134–136 |
IL-1β | T cells, monocytes/macrophages, ASMC, epithelium | Pro-proliferative | 137 138 |
IL-6 | T cells, monocytes/macrophages, ASMC, epithelium | Pro-proliferative | 135 138 |
IFN-γ | T cells, NK cells | Antiproliferative | 139 |
IL-4 | T-cell, mast cells | Antiproliferative | 140 141 |
Inflammatory mediators | |||
Histamine | Mast cells, basophils | Pro-proliferative | 142 143 |
Thromboxane A2 | Mast cells, monocytes/macrophages | Pro-proliferative | 144 145 |
Sphingosine 1-phosphate | Plasma, platelets | Pro-proliferative | 146 |
Enzymes and diverse | |||
Tryptase | Mast cells | Pro-proliferative | 143 147 |
Thrombin | Plasma | Pro-proliferative | 148 |
Elastase | Neutrophils | Pro-proliferative | 149 |
Reactive oxygen species | Monocytes–macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells | Pro-proliferative | 150 |
aSMC, airway smooth muscle cells; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukine; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α.